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BY 



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GERMANY. 

"POPE GREGORY VII. IN CONFLICT WITH EMPEROR HENRY IV." 

Emperor Henry IV. in penitentials is standing in Canossa, imploring 
Pope Gregory VII. to withdraw the anathema pronounced against him. 



1077 



The reign of the German emperor Henry IV., 
of the house of the Salian Franks (1066 to 1160), 
was nothing but a chain of troubles, misfortunes, 
degradation and treason. 

When his father, Emperor Henry III., died, in 
the year 1056, Henry IV. was but six years old. 
His mother, Empress Agnes, a very intelligent 
and noble-hearted woman, first undertook the 
education of her son and the government of the 
empire. Soon, however, she found herself in a 
difficult position, having to contend with many 
refractory seigniors of the realm, whom even the 
energetic Henry III. had been unable to entirely 
subdue, who had deposed three popes one after 
the other, and tried to render the power of the 
dukes- wholly dependent on the crown. It was, 
therefore, an unlucky circumstance for Henry IV. 
to be so very young at his father's death, when 
ecclesiastical and secular princes, beginning to 
feel tired of his father's strict rule, saw a fit 
occasion, during his minority, for throwing off 
their chains and again making themselves inde- 
pendent. It was a still greater misfortune for 
young Henry that his education soon fell into the 
hands of two men, who, in principles and pas- 
sions, formed a powerful contrast to each other, 
and alienated the young monarch's heart from his 
subjects. One of them was Archbishop Hanno 
of Cologne, a pious, serious and scientific man, 
but governed by an insatiable ambition, which 
induced him to place himself at the head of a 
faction dissatisfied with the empress, and to kid- 
nap the young prince. Hanno now put himself 
up as Lord Lieutenant of the empire, enriched his 
followers with the estates of the emperor, and at 
length, even forced the empress to leave the 
country. 

At that time there was a bishop in Bremen of 
the name of Adalbert, who enjoyed a far spread 
reputation, and whom Hanno tried to gain over 
. to his cause. Adalbert was a man of extraordi- 
nary talents, great activity, and irreproachable 
conduct, but too much addicted to pomp and 
prodigality, and therefore in constant need of 
money. 

Adalbert, by his insinuating manner, soon 



gained the heart of young Henry, who was 
watched by Hanno with the greatest strictness. 
But this circumstance would not have been of any 
serious consequence, if the principles of these two 
ecclesiastics had not been in diametrical contra- 
diction. 

Hanno aimed at extending as far as possible 
tke power and independence of the barons of the 
empire, whilst Adalbert wished for a restriction 
in this respect, and hoped, in young Henry, to 
raise up a scourge to them. All the whims and 
freaks of the future sovereign, finding indulgence 
and favor with Adalbert, it is not at all surprising 
that he took a dislike for the monkish Hanno, 
and became frivolous and haughty. 

Above all the rest, the archbishop especially 
hated the Saxons, because they had often crossed 
his intentions ; now he instilled this hatred into 
his pupil's heart, and thus laid the foundation for 
that series of misfortunes which marked the long 
reign of Henry. 

When Henry had reached his sixteenth year, 
most of the princes of the empire, who were 
jealous of Adalbert's omnipotence, in a diet at 
Tribur, declared him to be of age, to take the 
reins of government into his own hands, and 
obliged Adalbert to leave the emperor's court, 
whereupon Hanno again took possession of his 
former privileges. But Adalbert's principles had 
already too firmly rooted in the young king's 
heart to be extirpated by the grave Hanno, and 
Henry began to let the Saxons feel his power. 
He built castles throughout their country and 
garrisoned them with his own people, who, in- 
stigated by the example of their master, allowed 
themselves to be freely ruled by all sorts of 
passions. 

Hanno's influence over Henry, although in a 
very limited degree, continued until the year 
1072, when he was discharged, and Adalbert, 
who had already returned to the court again, 
assumed a far greater influence than ever. Henry 
continually treated the Saxons with a frivolity 
and severity beyond measure. His armed men, 
from his strong castles, made inroads into the 
land, drove away the cattle of the peasants, 



extorted oppressive taxes, violated the females, 
and forced the men to do socage in the construc- 
tion of castles. Consequently, when Henry sum- 
moned them to an expedition to Poland, they 
refused to obey, renounced allegiance, and even 
entered into a formal coalition against him. 

An army of 60,000 Saxons gathered and made 
its appearance before Goslar, where Henry usually 
resided, and it was only with great difficulty that 
he could escape and seek refuge in the castle of 
Hartzburg, one of his most powerful strongholds. 
The Saxons, however, followed him thither, and 
being unable successfully to defend the castle 
against their superior numbers, he again escaped 
during the night, by some hidden bye-paths, and 
at length arrived safely at Eschwege in Hessia. 
The Saxons, having another intention, did not 
follow him thus far, but destroyed nearly all the 
strongholds built in their country by Henry, 
Hartzburg not excepted, on which occasion its 
really fine church was also reduced to a heap of 
ruins. This circumstance was fatal to the 
Saxons, for Henry made complaints, on account 
of this deed, to Pope Gregory VII., (whose name, 
before his accession to the Holy See, was 
Hildebrand), who eagerly seized this opportunity 
to mix himself in the German affairs. 

In the meanwhile Henry had gained many ad- 
herents in Germany, although the princes of the 
empire entertained a secret purpose of electing 
Duke Rodolphus of Suabia, emperor of Germany 
in his stead. At the head of an army, Henry 
marched against his inveterate enemies, in the 
year 1075, and met them at Hohenberg, on the 
river Unstrut, where he gained a complete victory 
over them, June 8 th. But his victory was obtained 
at a severe cost, for the Saxons had fought with 
desperation, and many of his noble warriors, 
among whom was Margrave Ernest the Brave of 
Austria, lost their lives in the battle. Henry, 
however, made no wise use of his victory ; the 
Saxon princes who had fallen into captivity, were 
treated with the greatest severity, and the people 
were again obliged to suffer the hardest oppression. 

The Saxons in their misery, now, in their turn, 
addressed themselves to Pope Gregory, who 
eagerly seized their complaints, as a means of 
humbling the haughty German emperor, and thus 
to lessen the influence which Henry III. had 
exercised in Rome with unflinching authority. 
Gregory, upon the affidavit of the Saxons, that 
Henry ruled in their country, in an unwarrantable 
manner, summoned him before his tribunal in 
Rome, to answer this charge, and threatened him 
with excommunication, if he should not comply. 

Henry, irritated by this arrogance of the Pope, 
assembled the German bishops at Worms, and 
caused them to renounce their allegiance to 
Rome. But Gregory, well acquainted with 
Henry's precarious situation in Germany, was 
not in the least troubled by this declaration of 
the German bishops, and in the very same year 
pronounced the excommunication of the emperor, 
who, to his great disappointment, found himself 



deserted by most of his former friends, as soon as 
the fact of the excommunication became known in 
Germany. The Saxons immediately rose against 
him, and even most of the princes of the realm, at 
a meeting at Tribur, acknowledged the Pope's ban 
as legal. 

Henry now became well aware of his dangerous 
situation, and made all sorts of promises to the 
princes, but dissatisfied with the fickleness of his 
former conduct, they would not recognise him as 
their lawful monarch, unless the papal anathema 
be withdrawn from him. Thus Henry saw no other 
means of getting out of his dilemma, except by 
going himself to Rome, and asking the Pope to 
dissolve the ban. 

In the midst of the hard winter of the year 
1077, the unfortunate Henry, therefore, accompa- 
nied by his family, commenced his toilsome journey 
across the ice-fields of the Alps, to Italy. Gregory 
was already on his way to Germany, when, not a 
little astonished, he heard of the arrival of Henry 
at Lombardy, turned from his route and went to 
Cannossa. Here lived Matilda, Margavine of 
Tuscany, a handsome and noble lady, who enter- 
tained a magnificent court, and had long been in 
correspondence with Gregory. Henry went to 
her, and begged her to intercede for him with the 
Pope. But Gregory was neither moved, in his 
resolution, by the intercession of several great 
princes, nor by the prayers of his relative, Marga- 
vine Matilda, and would not consent to a recon- 
ciliation, unless the emperor had previously done 
penance. Henry found himself obliged to comply 
with this demand, and stand from morning until 
evening, during three days (January 28th-30th), 
in a severe cold, in the court-yard of the castle, 
divested of all his imperial insignia, dressed in a 
common linen robe, bare-footed and bare-headed, 
and prohibited from tasting food, imploring the 
Pope for forgiveness and mercy, by reciting the 
seven penitential psalms. It was not until the 
fourth day that the Pope allowed the unhappy and 
disfigured emperor to appear before him, when, in 
the presence of his attendants, he absolved him 
from the ban with grave words and haughty mien. 

This act of uncommon and unprecedented sever- 
ity, as well as the condition in which Henry was 
obliged to appear before the next diet, at Augs- 
burgh, to there hear whether or not he should 
continue to be emperor, and in addition to this, 
the fact, that in the meanwhile he had to abstain 
from all acts of government, and in future was in 
every respect to obey the dictates of Rome, roused 
the indignation of the Italians, who had been 
long ago displeased with Gregory, and who now, 
by promising their material aid, instigated the 
emperor, who in person, and in power, had so 
utterly degraded himself, to obtain absolution 
from the ban, not to fulfil in the least what he 
had promised. But Gregory caused the German 
princes to elect one anti-emperor after the other, 
and to live in continual conflict with Henry, up 
to the time of his death. 



SWEDEN. 

QUEEN CHRISTINA'S ACCESSION TO THE THRONE. 

The marshal leads the young queen in the midst of the assembled diet, on 
which occasion one man especially, belonging to the peasantry, looks at her most 
attentively. 

YEAR 1632 
Queen Christina of Sweden, celebrated for her 



eccentric character, was the daughter of Gustavus 
Adolphus, the most remarkable and greatest of all 
the kings of Sweden, and of Maria Eleonora of 
Brandeburgh, distinguished for her beauty, and 
love of fine arts. 

Christina was born at Stockholm, December 8th, 
1626, and in the spring of the following year, was 
declared heiress of the empire, by the States of 
Sweden. In her second year, Gustavus took her 
with him on a journey to Colmar. The Governor 
of this city, not daring to fire the guns without 
the King's permission, for fear of frightening the 
child, Gustavus replied : " Fire them, she is a 
soldier's daughter,- and must get used to the roar 
of cannon." And, indeed, she only evinced great 
joy at it, which pleased her father extremely. 

After that moment he took her to his military 
reviews, and she showed so much courage in her 
tender years, that the king playfully promised her, 
that he would once lead her to such places as would 
entirely satisfy her warlike spirit. At her de- 
parture from Germany, in 1830, she had been 
taught a little farewell speech, but the king was 
so much occupied that he did not hear her. The 
little princess observing this, pulled him towards 
her by the coat, and the king was so much touched 
by this mark of affection, that he embraced her, 
and could hardly help shedding tears. 

The queen, intending to accompany her husband 
on his expedition, the education of the young 
princess was entrusted to the princess Catherine, 
the king's sister, who was married to Count Pal- 
atine, John Casimir. Gustavus Adolphus then 
explained, in a powerful speech, to the States of 
Sweden his reasons for making war, and having a 
presentiment that he was not to see his country 
again, recommended his daughter Christina as 
heiress to the throne, while, passing over his much 
loved wife, he placed the government in the 
hands of a committee of senators. 

His landing was effected on the coast of Pom- 
erania, at the head of thirteen thousand men, 
where he in the outset encountered difficulties of 
every description, prepared even by those princes, 
for whose sake he had come to fight. But his 



genius, his generosity T and perseverance, conquered 
all obstacles, which inconstancy, distrust and 
weakness had put in his way. Victory and glory 
followed him everywhere, until never conquered, 
he met with his death in the battle of Luetzen, 
Nov. 2nd, 1632, not far from a large stone, on the 
high road, ever since called Swedenstone.* As 
soon as the king's death became known in Sweden, 
the States of the kingdom assembled immediately 
to proclaim the young princess queen. 

When the Marshal made the motion, one of the 
peasantry interrupted with the question : " Who 
is this daughter of Gustavus Adolphus ?" We do 
not know her, and never saw her." At the same 
time there was a murmur of applause, at the ques- 
tion, throughout the assembly. Then the marshal 
rose from his seat, saying, "You shall see her im- 
mediately," and when he had brought her from 
her room, he placed her in the midst of the as- 
sembly, but especially in front of the peasant, who 
had put the question, and who now looked at her 
most attentively. " Yes, it is she, he at length 
exclaimed, these are the eyes and nose, and fore- 
head of King Gustavus ; she shall be our queen." 

Christina was now proclaimed queen, and the 
guardianship, according to the king's especial de- 
sire, put into the hands of the five highest officers 
of the kingdom, among whom, Lord High Chan- 
cellor Oxenstierna was the most eminent. 

The will of the king, that the young queen 
should be brought up in every respect like a 
prince, was faithfully fulfilled by her guardians, to 
her own great satisfaction. 

Young Christina had a natural and irrisistible 
disgust for everything commonly clone by women, 

* The details of his death were for a long time related in 
different and contradictory ways ; Duke Francis Albert of 
Saxe-Louenburgb, especially, was long considered his murderer. 
However, by the publication of the letters of the page Au- 
gustus of Leubelfing, who was wounded at his side, it seems to 
be proved beyond a doubt that Gustavus Adolphus was killed 
by the balls of the cuirassiers of the Emperor. His bloody 
jerkin was brought to Vienna, where it is still kept ; his corpse 
was brought to Weissenfels, by the brave Bernard of Weimar, 
there to be delivered into the hands of the queen ; but his 
heart, after the dissection had been made in the school-room at 
Munich, was then placed in the church. 



and she never could be taught any of the handi- 
works of females, whilst, with the greatest facility 
she devoted herself to corporal exercise, and to the 
study of languages, and the sciences. Her man- 
ner of living was also entirely different from any 
of her sex and age ; abstinent in eating, drinking 
and sleeping, she endured heat and cold without 
complaining, and could neither be fatigued nor 
frightened by anything. In her fifteenth year she 
had attained a rare degree of perfection in the 
sciences and languages ; she read and perfectly 
understood the classical authors of the Greeks and 
Romans, and was well versed in the French, 
English, and Italian languages. With the erudi- 
tion of the scholar, she combined rare wit and 
sagacity. She usually dressed in male attire, 
took pleasure in horse-back riding, and even 
shared the dangers of hunting. She submitted to 
the etiquette of the court with the greatest re- 
luctance. 

Those around her person, were treated by her, 
alternately with great familiarity and with an air 
of superiority commanding respect. The great 
statesman Oxenstierna, she loved as a father ; he 
was her tutor in statesmanship, and she soon 
displayed such a maturity of intellect, in the 
council of state, as to not a little astonish her 
guardians. In the year 1642, the states of the 
kingdom entreated her to take the reins of gov- 
ernment into her own hands, but she declined, on 
account of her youth, and accepted royal authority 
only two years later, at which period she showed 
a great penetration of judgment, and an admirable 
power of will. She finished the war begun with 
Denmark in 1644, and by the treaty of Broem- 
sebra, gained several provinces, and in order, by 
peace, to be enabled to attend to the pursuit of the 
arts and sciences, she did her utmost to restore 
order in Germany, contrary to the opinion of 
Oxenstierna, who, by the continuation of the war, 
hoped to secure still greater advantages lor his 
country. By her talents, as well as by the poli- 
tical constellation of that time, Christina was 
called to exercise the greatest influence in the 
north of Europe, and for some time she was eager 
to act her part with honor. On several occasions 
she maintained the dignity of her crown, and the 
honor of her country. She favored commerce by 
wise legislation, and improved schools, and all 
institutions of the arts and sciences. 

The whole nation was attached to her, and re- 
joiced at seeing the daughter of Gustavus Adol- 



phus, at the head of the government, surrounded 
by generals and statesmen, grown up under the 
eyes of this great prince. It was then generally 
wished that the young queen should choose a 
husband ; Imtsuch a tie was contrary to Christina's 
love of independence. Among the many princes 
that courted her, Count Palatine of Zweibrucken, 
her cousin in german, was especially distinguished 
for his noble character, vast learning, and great 
wisdom. Christina declined his offer, but persuaded 
the states of the kingdom to appoint him her suc- 
cessor, after which she arranged her coronation 
as queen with great pomp, in the year 1650. But 
from that moment her whole conduct underwent 
a most striking change. She neglected her old 
ministers, and listened to the advice of ambitious 
favorites ; the intrigues of paltry passions sup- 
planted her former noble and useful pursuits ; the 
treasury became exhausted by dissipation : dis- 
tinctions were awarded to unworthy persons, and 
jealousy produced not only discontent and com- 
plaints, but even factions. In this confusion the 
queen declared her intention to abdicate. But 
the old ministers, still cherishing the memory of 
Gustavus Adolphus, made such urgent remon- 
strances, and Oxenstierna used his whole influence 
so untiringly, as to persuade the queen to give up 
her intention. Christina again seized the reins 
of government, and for some time dispersed the 
clouds darkening her horizon. She no longer ne- 
glected her scientific pursuits ; she invited several 
distinguished scholars to her court, and held cor- 
respondence with others. 

Not long after, however, public affairs again 
became embroiled, and the conjuration of Mes- 
senius, not only threatened her favorites, but even 
her own person. Christina, who in general, loved 
what is extraordinary, now firmly resolved to 
abdicate, and in presence of the assembled states 
of the kingdom, divested herself of the insignia of 
royalty, which she put into the hands of Prince 
Charles Gustavus, (1654) reserving to herself a 
certain revenue, complete independence of her 
own person, and supreme jurisdiction over all her 
attendants. Soon after, she left Sweden, with a 
great suit, and went to Brussels, where she adopted 
the Roman catholic faith, Dec. 24th, 1654. The 
rest of her days were spent in Rome, in the pursuit 
of the arts and sciences, and there she died, on the 
19th of April, 1689, after having passed through 
many vicissitudes and sufferings, being nearly 
reduced to poverty. 



■OPE GRECOKi'ATLIN CONFLICT AVITH EMPEROR PAPST GREG 



HENRY IV 



HEINRICH 




Kmperor Henry IV in penitentials is standing Kaiser Heinrich IV.steht flelrendzuKanossaim 

mi o mploring Pope Gregory VII Lo with- Bussgevande urn die Losung des §egen ihn .ius§c- 

drawthe anathema pronounced against him -sprocknenBannesvondemPa i ortlLzu eriaiigm 

X" I 



. . 96FullM»St.N.York 



SW1D1EH, 



QUEEN CRISTINA'S ACCESSION TO THE THRON 



rHRONBESTEIGUNG DER KONLCIN CHRISTINA . 




fe« 



The Marshal leads the young queen inraidsl of Der Marschall fiihrt die junge Konigin mitten unter 

the assembled diet, on which occasion especially die Versammlung der Reichsstande bei welcher Gele 

i»nc man. belonging to the peasantry, looks ai her genheit siebesonders ein Mannausdcm Bauernstande 

mosl attentively n? I recht aufmerksam betrachtet 



■ 



W1MSS Cli . 



riTUTIONOFTHE LEGION OF numm 

■in 



[8( DIE STIFTUNG DER EHRENLEGION 




Buonaparte urrounded 1 i I office] is Buonaparte steht auf einer Tribune von meh- 
standing upon a platform distributing the badge rcrcn Offizieren um&ben tmdvertheiltdasOrden: 



of thf Legion of Honor to the de en 



zeichen der Ehrenleeion an die Verdienstvollen 



XV 3 



SIICC3ILT. 



THE SICILIAN VESPEfi 



282 



DIE SICILIANISCHE VESPER. 




An impudent Frenchman, tinder the pretext of search- Km unverschamter Franzose erlaubl si< h §e§en erne jun^e 

nis for hidden arms, takes indecent liberties with ayoun£ adelige Dame, die mit ihren Aeltera undihrem Braul 

and noble lady, who is on her way lo church. accompanied so eben zur Kirche §in§ untei icm Vorwande als voile er iiiiln 

b\ her parents and bridegroom suchen. ob sie nicht ge^en das Verbot Waffen bei sich li 

X" I-. §robe Unanslandigkeiten 



Km] Hayti At'.. l.,il,,.. %1 ,, ■>!.!, | St N.York 



FRANCE. 

INSTITUTION OF THE LEGION OF HONOR (LEGION D'UONNEUR.) 



Buonaparte, surrounded by several officers, is standing upon a platform 
distributing the badge of the Legion of Honor to the deserving. 

YEAR 1802. 



When the French Revolution, after raging 
scarcely two years, had arrived to such a pitch, as 
to drive the greatest part of the nobility into 
exile, where they saved nothing but their lives, 
the National Assembly resolved upon seizing the 
properties of these emigrants, and of the church, 
in order to establish a fund of one thousand mil- 
lion of francs, (about $200,000,000) for rewarding 
the services of the army. But the sale of so 
many extensive estates, did not proceed as rapidly 
and favorably as the leaders of the State might 
have wished ; and the new republic, soon after, 
being involved in wars with half of Europe, and 
the public treasury becoming exhausted, the army t 
although called to harder service than ever, had 
to go without their deserved reward. 

It was not until the year 1802, that the nation 
could pay this debt, not only to the army, whose 
gallant deeds had made France the first political 
power in Europe, but to all those citizens, who had 
well deserved of their country. These circum- 
stances brought about the institution of the Legion 
of Honor by Buonaparte. 

Yet, to better understand the motives which led 
to the institution of this order, it will be necessary 
to recur to some of the events of the preceeding 
years. The Directory, (directoire) the last revo- 
lutionary magistracy in France, received its death- 
blow by Buonaparte, soon after his return from 
Egypt, (November 1799) and a new provisional 
consulate, with Buonaparte for chief, was insti- 
tuted. If this man had hitherto distinguished 
himself by his extraordinary military achieve- 
ments, the world then had no less occasion to 
be astonished at his statesmanship, so that Abbe" 
Sieyes, the great framer of political constitutions, 
who together with Roger Ducos, was to share 
the consulate with Buonaparte, felt prompted to 
remark to some of his friends, that " now they all 
had a master, who understood everything, did 
everything, and was capable of everything." 

In this way, Buonaparte, by the superiority of 
his genius, became the first consul of the republic, 



or in reality the leader of France. But this 
supreme dignity with which Buonaparte was 
vested, was limited to the short space of three 
years, after which, he, with his fellow-consuls, 
would again descend into private life, to give 
place to their successors. 

Such a short enjoyment of supreme power, was 
altogether inconsistent with the ambition of Buo- 
naparte, who, like Julius Caesar, would rather be 
the first in a village, than the second in Rome. 
On the other hand, his consular reign, was most 
glorious and beneficial to France ; for not only 
the last cinders wf revolution were extinguished, 
and order and tranquility restored in the country, 
but the fame of this extraordinary man, gained by 
his glorious victories, had spread over the whole 
globe. 

The treaty of Luneville (Feb. 1801), a conse- 
quence of the battle of Marengo, extended France 
as far as the river Rhine, and added Italy to the 
republic, whose influence became predominant in 
Germany, and in fact all over Europe. All these 
advantages were due to the first consul alone, 
who always excelled alike in battle and council. 
Prompted by gratitude the Senate then prolonged 
the consulship of Buonaparte to ten years. Still, 
this period, even, gave to the ruler of the State, a 
temporary power, only, the deprivation of which 
would be felt the more keenly. When therefore 
Buonaparte, by the treaty of Amiens (1802) had 
secured the safety and honor of his country against 
England, the most inveterate and dangerous enemy 
of France, the Senate passsed a resolution confer- 
ring upon Buonaparte the consulship for life ; and 
this act was handed to him in the solemn session 
of August 2nd, 1802, as the expression of the wish 
of the whole nation. In the interval, between the 
resolution of the Senate prolonging the consulate 
ten years, and the plebiscit, creating Buonaparte 
consul for life, the institution of the Legion of 
Honor took place, May 19th, 1802. 

Buonaparte wished this distinction to be grant- 
ed only as a token of personal merit, which he 
3. 



esteemed infinitely higher than any privilege of 
birth. In this respect he adopted the principles 
of modern philosophy in France, allowing public 
rewards to persons of merit alone, without any 
regard to family. Opposition, however, was raised 
against this institution, and even by some men 
who could not be accused, either of aristocratic 
jealousy, nor of ultra-democratic tendencies. 

Buonaparte, surprised that a decoration, so 
evidently bearing the stamp of equality, should be 
denounced, as tending to create a merely military 
order, briefly rebuked this objection in the follow- 
ing words : " If I had at any time entertained 
such a thought, it would now be altogether out of 
season, the French nation enjoying perfect liberty. 
Our republic is composed of thirty millions of 
people, who by their civilization, by their proper- 
ties and by their commerce, have but one point 
in view, that is, prosperity and glory. Compared 
with such a multitude, three to four hundred 
thousand soldiers, are of no consideration what- 
ever ; the nation itself constitutes the army. If 
the army were to be separated from the civilians, 
it would soon acknowledge no other law than that 
of its own power, and claim to be privileged in 
every respect ; for the peculiarity of the army is 
despotism, while civilians submit everything to 
free discussion, to truth and reason. If, therefore, 
the question of precedence should be raised, I 
should not hesitate a single moment in deciding in 
favor of the civilians, for I do not rule the destinies 
of France, as a general, but I am called to the 
consulship because the nation has confidence that 
I possess those qualities of a citizen requisite for 
governing a state. The Legion of Honor, a name 
which some people find fault with, is therefore 
nothing but a reward of merit, without regard to 
the class to which its recipient may belong." 

The objection, as if by the name Legion of Hon- 
or, a consular guard was meant, similar to the ill- 
famed Roman Pretorian Guard, being thus entirely 
refuted, Buonaparte held the first chapter in the 
palace of the Tuileries, (May 19th, 1802) where, 
decorated with flags, a platform was erected, upon 
which a little chair was placed, with a rich 
cushion, and upon this a vessel containing the 
decorations. 

Buonaparte, in the regimentals of a general, and 
surrounded by some of his most distinguished 
officers, was standing near this chair calling aloud 
the names of those, who were to be decorated 
first, and whose presence had been previously 
requested for this purpose. The happy man who 



first received this distinction at his hands, was an 
aged man, with a wooden leg, in citizen's dress, 
who had lost a leg in the battle of Marengo, and 
who lived in the country upon a small pension. 
When he received the badge of the order, tears 
of joy rolled down his wrinkled cheeks, and he was 
hardly able to answer Buonaparte's address. 
After him many other persons, but most of them 
belonging to the army, received this distinction, 
which very naturally provided the consul with new 
means for gaining the hearts of many. 

The badge of this new order was in the form 
of a star with five double radii, bearing the like- 
ness of Buonaparte, circumscribed by the words 
" Napoleon First Consul," which afterwards were 
changed to " Emperor and King." On the reverse 
there was the French eagle, with lightnings in bis 
claws, and the inscription : " Honor and Father- 
land." This badge was attached to a ribbon, 
worn across the shoulder on the left side. 

A private soldier decorated with the order re- 
ceived 250, an officer 1000, a commander 2000, 
and a general officer 5000 francs a year as an 
honorary stipend. 

"When in consequence of the battle of Leipsic, 
Napoleon was obliged to come back to France as 
a fugitive, and even to renounce the throne, the 
new dynasty retained the order, so that it became 
a real national institution, with the only change, 
that Napoleon's profile disappeared from the star, 
and made room for that of Henry IV.,* and on the 
reverse, lilies occupied the place of the eagle, so 
as to better adapt it to the new royal government. 

Louis XVIIL, besides, re-established the old roy- 
al orders of the Holy Ghost, of St. Louis, and of 
St. Lazarus, but, after the revolution in July 1830, 
which forced the successor of Louis XYIII., 
Charles X., to leave the country and seek refuge 
abroad, these three old royal orders were again 
abolished, and the Legion of Honor adopted as the 
only order of France, for every sort of merit. 

The members of this order are not limited in 
number, but great discernment and economy is 
used in its distribution. 



* King Henry IV. became king of France in 1589, after 
the violent death of Henry III., but not without many hard 
struggles, and reigned till 1610, when he was murdered by a 
fanatic of the name of Raveillac. He was one of the best 
monarchs of France, eagerly studying to promote the welfare 
of his subjects, who, in their gratitude, called him the father 
of the country. His memory has ever been dear to the French 
till the present time. 



SICILY. 

THE SICILIAN VESPER. 

An impudent Frenchman, under the pretext of searching for hidden arms, 
takes indecent liberties ivith a youny and noble lady, who is on her way to church, 
accompanied by her parents and bridegroom. 

YEAR 1282 



The last offspring of the house of Hohenstaufen 
Conradin, scarcely sixteen years of age, had ended 
his life, full of hope at the outset, by the hands of 
the executioner, at Naples, 1268, and the church 
had been completely victorious in her pertinacious 
contest with this dynasty, that she had so relent- 
lessly hated, and that after flourishing scarcely a 
hundred years, had come to such a tragical down- 
fall ; but her material gain by this victory was 
very inconsiderable. 

The protege of Pope Clement the II., the cruel 
and cunning Charles of Anjou, after he had consol- 
idated his new throne by the execution of Conra- 
din, soon became more dangerous to his protector, 
than any one of the house of Hohenstaufen ever 
had been to the Roman See. 

Charles, as the leader of the Guelfs, (this was 
the name given in Italy, to the party hostile to the 
German emperors), succeeded in establishing his 
authority throughout the whole of Italy. He 
stretched out one hand to seize the imperial crown 
of Germany, whilst with the other he tried to push 
the Greek emperor from his throne, and to estab- 
lish for his own dynasty, an independent empire 
on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. 

This intention, which he took little pains to 
hide, had already alarmed his protector, Pope 
Clement ; still more so, however, his successors, 
Pope Gregory X., and Pope Nicolas III. When 
they, thorefore, in their apprehension, turned their 
eyes towards Germany, there to find a counter- 
balance against Charles, and to crush his growing 
power, he as Rome's nearest and most powerful 
neighbor, contrived to gain such an influence over 
the election of the popes, that none but men of his 
own choice, were elevated to that dignity. Thus 
the popes, in conquering the Hohenstaufs, and 
promoting the despotic Charles, had acted against 
their own interests. But Conradin's manes were 
most terribly avenged ; for just when Charles be- 
lieved himself to be at the height of his power, 
acquired by selfish ambition and cruelty, he 

4. 



hurled in the most terrible manner from his 
position. 

After Conradin's defeat at Togliacozza, (1268), 
not only Naples, but also Sicily, was an easy con- 
quest. The Saracenian colony of Luceria alone, 
faithful to the house of Hohenstaufen, even in its 
disasters, defended itself to the last. This strik- 
i n gty proves that this colony, transplanted from 
Africa to Italy by the Hohenstaufs, had been 
always kindly treated by them. But the arro- 
gance and cruelty, with which the French treated 
their new subjects, and the persecution which 
many people had to suffer, as alleged partizans of 
Conradin, roused a spirit of daily increasing dis- 
content. This oppression was most keenly felt by 
Sicily, whose population principally had favored 
the Hohenstaufs, and now especially had to 
feel the resentment of Charles. At length John 
of Procida, a man of energy, former governor of 
this island, but deprived of his dignity by Charles 
under paltry pretexts, conceived the plan of put- 
ting an end to oppression. Procida descended 
from a noble family of Salerno, and derived his 
name from the little island of Procida, whose pro- 
prietor he was ; he was a good scholar, and espe- 
cially well versed in medicine. As an adherent to 
Conradin, he had been unable to save his property 
from the greedy hands of Charles, but preserved 
at least his life by escaping to the court of Aragon, 
where he met with the most friendly reception, 
and was indemnified for the loss he had sustained. 
Full of hatred against the French, and deeply de- 
ploring the fate of the Hohenstaufs, he persuaded 
the king of Anjou, Peter III, and his wife Constan- 
tia, daughter of king Manfred, to take vengeance 
on Charles, and to liberate the oppressed. But 
Peter not believing himself strong enough to 
challenge the mighty Charles, caused Procida to 
go to Sicily, to ascertain the disposition of her 
inhabitants, and secretly to gain some other ally. 
In Sicily, Procida found the discontent of his 
countrymen, with the despotic sway of the French, 



8 



greater than he had at first imagined, and conse- 
quently was sure of their support in any emergency. 
Then he disguised himself as a Franciscan monk, 
and went to Constantinople, to the Greek emperor, 
Palaeologus, who offered subsidies, and promised 
■ arms to the Sicilian barons. 

Now Peter of Aragon took courage, and 
equipped a fleet, and doing this under the pretext 
of cruising against the infidels of Africa, he was 
assisted by France, and even by Charles of Anjou 
himself. And, indeed, he at first intended sailing 
to Africa, to wait there and see how matters went 
on in Sicily, but before he arrived off the coast of 
Africa, the conjuration plotted by John of Pro- 
cida, had by an accident, already come to an out- 
break. It was on Easter Monday, 1282, when the 
citizens of Palermo were wont to go to vespers, 
at the church of Montreale, situated at some dist- 
ance from the city. It was a common promenade, 
and the French, who themselves enjoyed the walk, 
had forbidden the Palermitans to carry arms, with 
which they were in the habit of practising and 
amusing themselves. 

The bells were already ringing for vespers, and 
many citizens were thronging the way to the 
church, while others were conversing with each 
other or gathering flowers. At that moment a 
Frenchman of rank, named Drouet, approached a 
young noble lady, going to church, with her 
parents and bridegroom, and took indecent 
liberties with her, under the pretext of searching 
for hidden arms. The young lady swooned, and 
fell into the arms of her bridegroom, whereupon 
her relatives hastened to the spot, full of indigna- 
tion ; and many of the bystanders took a lively 
interest in what happened. Drouet was killed, 
and in a moment, thousands of hidden daggers 
were drawn, and thousands of eyes were looking 
around for victims of vengeance. 

The signal had been given, and in a few mo- 
ments, the slaughter became general, and the 
vespers were superseded by an awful blood-shed. 
While the bells of Montreale continued to invite 
believers to divine service, all the Frenchmen that 
happened to be there, fell by the daggers of the 
infuriated Palermitans. Such was their rage, 
that they did not spare a single one, and even 
hastened back to Palermo, and searched until they 
had killed the last of the hated foreigners. From 
Palermo the insurrection spread rapidly over the 
whole island. In the town of Latanea alone 8000 
Frenchmen lost their lives. In order to recognize 
them, every unknown person had to pronounce the 
word " ciceri," (peas), which it was impossible for 
the French to pronounce well. At Taormina, 
where many of the French had taken refuge, the 
same scenes were enacted as at Latanea. In 
Messina, kept by a strong French garrison, was 
the last outbreak of the insurrection, at which 



time 3000 French were killed. In the whole of 
Sicily, only two French noblemen were spared 
and 30,000 Frenchmen are said to have fallen in 
the space of a few months, as victims to the popu- 
lar vengeance ; an awful expiatory sacrifice indeed, 
to the manes of Conradin. 

Charles of Anjou was staying in Rome with 
Pope Martin, when he received the news of this 
dreadful event. In his rage he bit the button of 
his stick, and swore dreadful vengeance upon the 
Sicilians, and the Pope pronounced the interdict 
over the whole country. 

Charles immediately equipped a strong fleet, and 
sailed to Messina, which he besieged long, but in 
vain, because the inhabitants being too well aware 
of their fate, in the event of their being conquered, 
made superhuman efforts to repulse every attack 
on their harbor. In the meanwhile, Peter of Ara- 
gon, at the head of 30,000 warriors, landed at 
Palermo, where the inhabitants rejoiced at his 
arrival, immediately proclaimed him king of Sicily, 
and swore allegiance.* This had scarcely been 
done, when Peter's valiant admiral, Loria, sailed 
to Messina, whilst the army was going there by 
land, to assist the inhabitants of that town in their 
struggle. This circumstance induced Charles to 
give up the siege of Messina, and to retire to the 
coast of Calabria ; but, near Cartona and Eeg- 
gio, his fleet was overtaken by Loria, who burned 
all the ships, eighty in number, and Charles stand- 
ing upon the coast, with tears of rage in his eyes, 
was compelled to witness the destruction of his 
fleet, and a great part of his army. 

From that moment, the beautiful island of Si- 
cily was lost to Charles, and Peter III. was con- 
solidated in his new possessions. It was in vain 
that Charles attempted to repair his losses by a 
new expedition. He died in 1285, before he could 
witness the complete overthrow of his power in 
Italy, and although Peter of Aragon died in the 
same year, his descendents maintained themselves 
in the possession of Sicily until the end of the 
fourteenth century. 

In 1302 peace was concluded, by virtue of which, 
Peter's third son, Frederick, was recognized king 
of Sicily, and Charles II., son of Charles of Anjou, 
had to content himself with his possessions in lower 
Italy, or the kingdom of Naples. This treaty was 
sanctioned by the Pope, not only because Freder- 
ick, too, declared himself the vassal of the Pope, 
but also, because the division of the power of 
Naples, was agreeable to the interests of the 
church. 

* Conradin had made Peter III. of Aragon his heir, his 
wife, Constantia, being the daughter of Manfred, an illegi- 
timate son of Emperor Frederick II. of the house of Hohen- 
staufen. 



Nov. S I860. 



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